Contemporary Moral Problems of Nanotechnologies Essay - 1

Contemporary Moral Problems of Nanotechnologies - Essay Example Subsequently, the innovation is overflowing with dangers and relating risks. The field involves various unforeseen impacts that could be tragic for individuals and nature as well as for the innovation itself as vulnerability impacts advancement and its guideline. Unit II delineated the theoretical contraption that is intended to clarify and address this test. The principal segment was hazard. As has been clarified, quite a bit of nanotechnology is still inside the territory of theory and that the dangers are not all that much. These dangers, which are believed to affect the earth and human wellbeing particularly, were characterized first by the creators into four: undesirable occasion that might possibly happen; the reason for an occasion that could conceivably happen; the likelihood of an undesirable occasion which could possibly happen; and, the normal result of undesirable occasions. (Alhoff, Lin and Moore 2010, p. 74) Clearly, all the arranged dangers are not obviously recognized particularly the initial two as the two of them are subjective in nature. The undesirable occasion as refered to is very questionable in light of the fact that there is a vulnerability with respect to its event. It could conceivably occur. There is an away from of accidental, which, in itself, establishes an extraordinary piece of the dangers as of now. After the dangers, the prudent standards were plot. The essential issue in this regard is the way that there are various proposals being advanced and, more regrettable, no agreement concerning how to forestall dangers. The UNESCO’s position, in any case, was given due significance, which expresses that â€Å"when human exercises may prompt ethically unsatisfactory mischief that is logically conceivable yet dubious, moves will be made to keep away from or lessen that harm.† (Alhoff and Lin 2008, p. 80) Regulation, be that as it may, asserted some similarity to shared opinion in the discussion. Unit II was sure about the way that guidelines on nanotechnology differ over the world that is the reason what they have sketched out was an applied examination of the general discussion and didn't harp on explicit strategy suggestions. A noteworthy segment of this talk was given to the upsides and downsides of the Stricter-Law contention, which sets that most laws pertinent to nanotechnology are as of now obsolete and that it is conceivable that they can no longer relieve the dangers in question; thus, new laws and guidelines must be established to cure the issue. (Alhoff, Lin and Moore, p. 103) Other choices refered to were a complete prohibition on nanotechnology, keeping up business as usual, and some interval arrangement that would maybe adjust all worries and interests of however much partners as could be expected. The last segment of the reasonable mechanical assembly was the value and access to nanotechnology. It has been contended that it has colossal potential that could reform the manner in which individuals live and maybe tackle numerous human and natural issues over the globe. This, in mix, with the different components found in Unit II as refered to here, is generally like an endeavor to delineate a free money saving advantage investigation wherein the dangers and points of interest are set one next to the other each other so as to decide the best game-plan on the best way to regard nanotechnology as a control and how to pass judgment on it in moral and good terms. Part II: Use the calculated mechanical assembly you recreated in Part I to assess the moral and social ramifications of one of the utilizations of nanotechnology we occupied with Unit III. In deciding the moral and s

How My Personal Values Influence My Way of Teaching

Relating theory to instructional method †how my own qualities impact my method of educating Within any youth training (ECE) setting the teaching method of the instructors will have extraordinary effect on the projects and ways of thinking which the youngsters inside that setting will be affected by. Instructors have a duty to fabricate and keep up bona fide, open, corresponding associations with youngsters, families and the network (Gailer, 2010).This isn't just an indispensable piece of the youth educational program Te Whariki which has connections as one of its four establishment standards (Ministry of Education [MoE], 1996) yet in addition part of the showing norms and morals. As an instructor I relish in the opportunity to manufacture associations with various youngsters, all exceptional in their way of life, qualities, thoughts and method of being. The significance I place on connections agrees with both Vygotsky’s and Bronfenbrenner’s sociocultural hypotheses . Vygotsky underscored the significance of the individuals encompassing a kid, seeing them essential for supporting and improving the child’s development.Bronfenbrenner broadened this into a model of relevant elements, utilizing thoughts regarding five sorts of settings encompassing the individual youngster including their small scale and meso-frameworks where the connections of their everyday real factors happen (Drewery and Bird, 2004). These hypotheses have been imperative in the advancement of New Zealand’s youth educational plan, Te Whariki, thus my understandings of these and with my own way of thinking I would like to have the right stuff to have the option to fabricate deferential equal associations with all students. Building these connections anyway isn't as simple as individuals outside of the calling frequently assume.Appendix 2 shows Suzie Gailer’s (2010) article on being proficient, the article examines how proficient uprightness of training is dep endent on educators having a specific arrangement of qualities, regard, validness, strengthening and straightforwardness. The picture of the kid is socially built and connected to our time and spot ever, the picture I have as an educator today of youngsters is totally different to that of which I was seen as a kid. My picture of the youngster has changed as I have increased both pragmatic and hypothetical educating experience.In my first practicums I didn't really have a clue what's in store about structure beginning associations with kids however as I have picked up information I currently realize that kids can be trusted to construct these connections in time spans which are directly for them. Te Whariki (MoE, 1996) presents the picture of kids as equipped students and communicators and I currently maintain this picture in my showing practice and as a parent (Appendices 3, 4 and 5), alongside the estimations of regard which I have explained through the accompanying of Magda Gerber ’s work.From my own moderately restricted down to earth understanding and hypothetical information I can identify with the thought of Edwards and Nuttall (2005) where â€Å"the instructional method, or ‘the demonstration of teaching’, isn't just interceded by educators’ understandings about the kids, learning, and the educational program; their understandings about the social settings wherein they work, their own encounters past the working environment and their commitment with the centre’s more extensive network all have a job in deciding the educator’s actions† (p. 36).My own basic convictions, qualities and methods of reasoning all effect on my showing style and, albeit regularly unwittingly, in transit I identify with people. Promise to intelligent practice, the individual way of thinking I have enunciated and the craving for proficient improvement will help me in maintaining an instructional method which is responsive in time just as to people. This teaching method with its recognized parts of appraisal, arranging, execution and assessment is impacted by my qualities and encounters and I endeavor to clarify and ponder these in this essay.The primary evaluation process I use is ‘Learning Stories’, a methodology created by Dr. Margaret Carr. Learning stories show a depiction of a learning experience which has been imparted to the youngster or kids included and are a record of the premiums and qualities of the kid. Research shows that learning is increasingly successful when it is gotten from premiums, empowering inspiration and the feeling of certainty that originates from working inside one’s own strengths.The learning story structure depends on the conviction that growing great learning attitudes is the most significant aptitude in youth and this fits well with my estimations of regard and having the Te Whariki picture of the youngster, a sure, equipped student and communicator. The estab lishments of learning stories are the airs found in Te Whariki and in my own learning stories these are featured, demonstrating individual instructors, guardians and whanau how I work to help children’s learning in all parts of the program and educational program (Appendices 4, 6 and 7).Upholding this picture of kids practically speaking is anyway met with difficulties. Woodrow (1999) portrays how there are coming about developments of youth dependent on how people experienced adolescence, on social ancient rarities and on proficient information, Ellen Pifer (2000) likewise depicts these clashing pictures in her book Demon or Doll (Appendix 8) which has really opened my psyche to methods of seeing people. Other instructing experts may hold various pictures of youngsters, for example, the kid as honest or as an undeveloped organism grown-up and this will affect in transit they act around and towards children.Having a dedication towards intelligent practice and routinely assess ing my own instructional method will permit me to manage these difficulties, giving me the abilities to clarify my perspective and comprehend that of others with the goal that the most ideal result is accomplished. To embrace such evaluation it is critical to construct a relationship with the youngsters and these complementary connections are another key piece of my philosophy.This esteem has changed with my experience and hypothetical information, in my underlying practicum I was uncertain about how to approach building connections that are both conscious and proportional (Appendices 9 and 10) yet my trust in this has, and will proceed, to develop (Appendix 11). I accept that building an equal relationship implies offering parts of my life to youngsters and not anticipating that them should uncover themselves without the kindness being returned. I have a tremendous enthusiasm towards creatures and I have imparted this to the kids on my last two practicums by bringing my guinea pigs (Appendix 12).The youngsters feel parts of strengthening and trust as I permit them to be personally associated with a significant piece of my own life. Building such connections preceding endeavor evaluation features the winding idea of instructing and the parts of instructional methods. Taking the guinea pigs to the middle required arranging and cautious usage, incorporating conversation with staff and families to guarantee social needs were met. A few societies don't concur with the keeping of creatures as pets and so as to maintain the aware picture of the kid and associations with the family and network I expected to acknowledge and regard this belief.The focus strategies and enactment likewise assume a job in arranging and usage, wellbeing and cleanliness guidelines should have been considered for this movement and for other people, various approaches will become an integral factor. For additional appraisal and arranging the association of partners and whanau in the learning stories and other documentation would assume an essential job in the continuation of the premium however sadly the short idea of the practicum didn't consider this.Cultural needs and matches weight intensely in the arranging and usage phases of my instructional method. This is connected to all the qualities in my way of thinking; connections, regard and value. These qualities imply that I have confidence in focussing on aptitudes and abilities instead of on inadequacies to make learning situations, for instance regarding that crying is a substantial endeavor at correspondence and can be a certified learning experience (Appendix 11). Nyland (2004) portrays how the investment rights and settings of infants’ information can be ignored in childcare settings.On-line conversations with individual understudies in regards to this perusing offer help to the possibility that discourteous situations unfavorably influence the personality and cooperation of youngsters. What occurs in a si tuation when a character is missing through and through and kids are confronted with pictures of white working class healthy citizenry? What message is that providing for these youngsters and their families? You don’t have a place? You are not a genuine individual from our general public? We don’t esteem you? The situations we plan for the youngsters say a lot about how we see society and the individuals we regard and worth (Ellis, R. , Fuamatu, P. Perry Smith, A. M. Moodle; September 2011). During arranging I in this way need to contemplate assets which mirror the way of life inside the setting and the network. This can be accomplished through correspondence with different teachers in the setting, guardians, and different individuals from the network, for example, kaumatua or the nearby cleric. Getting ready for social events is likewise imperative to me as I feel they connect the ECE setting with the more extensive network and social qualities. This incorporates occa sions, for example, Mother’s and Father’s day (Appendix 13) just as social events, for example, the Lantern Festival, Diwali and Pasifika events.Although during such arranging I am aware of the objectives and learning results which Te Whariki and the training norms present I additionally continually help myself to remember the all encompassing nature in which the learning will happen. Lawrence (2004) portrays the move in speculation and program arranging in ECE settings in the course of the last two deca

Reading Pathway C.S. LEWIS

Reading Pathway C.S. LEWIS C.S. Lewis (1898-1963) was one of the greatest authors and apologists of the twentieth century. He was a paradoxical manâ€"intensely private and world famous, a family man and confirmed bachelor until later in life, and a staunch atheist who became a reluctant evangelist. He is the chosen literary icon of modern American Evangelicals, but despite the fact that most of his writing heavily reflects his Christian faith, his appeal extends far beyond a single denomination or religion. Lewis’s work is remarkable not only for its clarity and insight into the human condition, but its breadth. During his sixty-four years Lewis wrote poetry, fantasy and science fiction, academic and popular nonfiction, essays, and more, so it’s difficult to choose just three books to start with. My reason for picking these particular books is because each one reflects a key period of Lewis’s lifeâ€"his literary childhood, his conversion to Christianity and subsequent rise to fame, and the years leading up to his death. I. The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe The first book in the Narnia series (or the second, if you read in chronological order1) was published in 1950. In addition to being one of most popular children’s books of all time, it provides insight into Lewis’s literary and creative interests as a child. Little Lea, Lewis’s childhood home, was well stocked with books, and he spent many rainy days reading and writing about imaginary worlds with his brother, Warnie. The children’s author Edith Nesbit left a particular imprint on Lewis’s young mind. Certain plot lines in her book, The Magic World (1912), are quite similar to those in The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe. In fact, both books feature wardrobes that double as thresholds to magical worlds. Lewis’s friend and colleague J.R.R. Tolkien thought the Narnia series lacked depth. Though the series heavily reflected his childhood flights of imagination, it is highly probable that Lewis imbued  what could have been a simple children’s fantasy with a symbolism that Tolkien missed. Scholar Michael Ward posited in 2008 that each Narnia novel corresponds to one of the seven planets in the medieval understanding of the universe. 2 Lewis’s longstanding fascination with medieval symbolism and mythology supports this theory. II. Mere Christianity World War II brought with it a renewed interest in religious matters in Great Britain. As a result, the BBC hired Lewis to give a series of broadcast talks to address the spiritual concerns of the British people. These broadcast talks were later published in three volumesâ€"Broadcast Talks (1942), Christian Behaviour (1943), and Beyond Personality (1944). Though interconnected, they were viewed by the general public as separate works, so Lewis combined and amplified them to create Mere Christianity, published in 1952. Mere Christianity is Lewis’s seminal evangelical workâ€"a logical argument for the Christian faith and a call for peace and cooperation between the various denominations therein. Many apologetic works have been based on it, and it’s probably Lewis’s best-known work after The Chronicles of Narnia. The broadcast talks were what catapulted Lewis to fame in England, and the publication of Mere Christianity spread his fame to America.   III. A Grief Observed Before  1961, Lewis’s nonfiction was primarily intellectual in nature. Then, his wife of four years, Joy Davidman, died of cancer, leaving him devastated. He took to the page in his grief, writing a highly emotional account of the spiritual questions and doubts that her passing raised for him. It’s a raw and unabashedly honest book that challenges the soundness of Lewis’s earlier arguments about pain and its place in the life of faith (outlined in The Problem of Painâ€"a good book to read in conjunction with  this one, but certainly not necessary) when faced with the actual experience of suffering. Lewis was notoriously uncomfortable with expressing sentimentality in his writing and took great pains to disguise his authorship of A Grief Observed when it was published. He used a pseudonym and altered his usual writing style to avoid detection. Even so, T.S. Eliot, then a director at the publisher Faber and Faber, recognized the manuscript’s author immediately. Once you’ve finished these three books, you’ll have a basic idea of who Lewis was as a writer. Obviously you should read everything he’s ever written, but a couple of good follow-up books to start with are The Screwtape Letters, a novel written as a series of letters between a demon and his protégé, and C.S. LewisA Life by Alister McGrath. The latter is an excellent biography that gives a wonderful overview of his life and insight into his works. _________________________ 1I personally recommend reading the books in the order they were written or published. As Alister McGrath points out in C.S. Lewis: A Life, “The chronological approach raises considerable difficulties for readers. For example, the events of The Horse and His Boy actually occur during, not after, those of The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe.” 2For a layman’s overview of this theory, read The Narnia Code: C.S. Lewis and the Secret of the Seven Heavens. For an in-depth scholarly analysis read Planet Narnia: The Seven Heavens in the Imagination of C.S. Lewis, both by Michael Ward.

Modern Political Theory Rousseau and Machiavelli Essay

Machiavelli and Rousseau, both influential philosophers, were innovators of their time. They represented different ideas on what the state of nature and government should consist of, having both similarities and differences. Their viewpoints evolved from different time periods, which make them unique. Machiavelli, the sixteenth century Italian diplomat expressed, that a Prince should be unethical in achieving power. He argued that to be successful in politics certain qualities were of importance and ethics could not stand in the way. Machiavelli stated that a Prince’s power should be maintained in being feared and loved, and possessing control over the people. Rousseau on the other hand was an eighteen century philosopher and writer.†¦show more content†¦He says as their Prince people would do anything to protect him but when he is in danger they turn away. He understood that most people act for self interest and not for the interest of others. He saw that political success would not depend on chance or luck but through the eyes of fear. Machiavelli says, â€Å"The Prince must none the less make himself feared in such a way that, if he is not loved, at least he escapes being hated.† (10). [Burton Dworkin] He perceives that social order is continuous and impossible solve. Not everyone will be happy with the decisions he makes but as long as the majority agrees with him, he shouldn’t have a problem. Machiavelli knew that a Prince must secure his power and must be powerful enough to keep it. The idea that doing anything to get this power, whether it was moral or not was the most important aspect. â€Å"A prince should not worry if he incurs reproach for his cruelty so long as he keeps his subjects united and loyal.† (Machiavelli 9). [Burton Dworkin] He did not see all men as equal. He perceived that some men existed to become rulers and others did not. In my opinion I think this is true in almost any government. He also believes that honesty could not always be a standard because some times you had to lie to get what you needed. In a sense saying, men who want to have more power are willing to be unethical to claim it. Machiavelli expresses very dark perspectives in the Prince which makes it easier for me to relate toShow MoreRelatedHobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Machiavelli Essay1855 Words   |  8 PagesHobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Machiavelli The thirteenth through the eighteenth century brought profound changes in the political realm of Western civilization. Beginning with the Scientific Revolution and only advancing during the Renaissance, secularization and skepticism lead to changes in not only the intellectual life of Westerners, but also to their politics. At the forefront of the political debate were well-versed men such as Machiavelli, Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. The influencesRead MorePolitical Philosophy Is Not Just Applied Moral Philosophy Essay2560 Words   |  11 PagesIntroduction: Political philosophy is the study of basic questions about the state, government, politics, liberty, justice etc. political philosophy is concerned with the concepts and arguments involves in political opinion. It is ethics applied to a group of people, discusses about societies set up.In political philosophy it is important to know what ought to be a person’s relationship in a society. This seeks application of ethical concepts to social sphere. It is a standard which help to analyzeRead MorePlato And Aristotle s Views On Political Philosophy Essay3649 Words   |  15 PagesIntroduction: The term â€Å"Political Philosophy† is a normative study of state, government, relationships between individual and communities, laws, rights and justice. It depends on the philosophers that can be entangled with ethics, economics and also metaphysics. 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It is a part of social science which discuss about government and politics. It generally analyses the methods and policies of government. It is the systematic and analytical study of political and government institutions. The procedure and process of governmental policies is explained in political science. In order to define and analyze political science many political thinkers have given different theories. They practiced political scienceRead MoreRousseau s Views On Private Property2452 Words   |  10 PagesExam 11.6.2015 PART A 1. The quote was made by Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) in his creation â€Å"On Social Contract (1762)† (Rousseau, Social Contract, 4). Rousseau’s discourse on private property can be understood as a response to John Locke’s theories regarding property – and especially to Locke’s labor theory and the government’s role in it (assumption based on the similarity of their discourse). 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Rhetorical Analysis Truth Is Mighty And Will Prevail

Twain’s satirical essay is unconventional from what might be expected for advice to youth to follow. He uses humour throughout the essay and in many instances sarcasm is called upon, such as when explaining the importance of practicing and perfecting lying â€Å"A final word: begin your practice of this gracious and beautiful art early – begin now. If I had begun earlier, I could have learned how†. What Twain says is false, as no lie is designed to last forever, what he means is no one can ever learn to lie perfectly, the opposite is true. â€Å"Truth is mighty and will prevail†, a statement challenged by likening it to a majestic compound fracture, which is a gruesome break of bone. What is meant by using this metaphor, is that truth is not always mighty and does not always prevail, revealing irony within the topic. The importance of never handling firearms carelessly through Twain’s anecdote of a grandson laughing, pointing and shooting at his grandmother with an unloaded gun. In this story, he explains the boy had supposed the gun was not loaded â€Å"And he was right, it wasn’t. So there wasn’t any harm done.† In reality likely a good deal of harm had been done, to their relations, to her fear of guns and possibly to the old lady’s cardiac health, so to say there was no harm done in such an offhand manner suggests the use of sarcasm. Another example of illustration through anecdote is the story of the monument in Boston of the man who is believed to have discovered anesthesia, it isShow MoreRelatedFigurative Language and the Canterbury Tales13472 Words   |  54 Pages†¢ Mad world ! Mad king! Mad composition ! 6. antagonist: the character or force opposing the protagonist in a narrative; a rival of the hero 7. apostrophe: addressing an absent or dead person or a personified abstraction †¢ â€Å"Eloquent, just, and mighty Death ! whom none could advise....† †¢ O WORLD, I cannot hold thee close enough! 8. approximate rhyme: also known as imperfect rhyme, near rhyme, slant rhyme, or oblique rhyme. A term used for words in a rhyming pattern that have some kind of soundRead Moretheme of alienation n no where man by kamala markandeya23279 Words   |  94 Pagesironically backfires on him. Antigone’s protest against Creon’s decree merely underscores the fundamental truth that conscience is very often above the law. MOOD The action takes place in the period of uneasy calm following the civil war in Thebes. In this time of tentative peace, Creon’s new edict introduces a note of harsh repression and punitive malevolence. A mood of uncertainty prevails in Thebes. The Chorus reacts typically to the flux of public events in these disturbed times. At times,Read MorePopulation Problem in Bangladesh14871 Words   |  60 PagesThe Bangladeshi English Essay Book An Analysis by Robin Upton, January 22nd 2006 Public Domain under (cc) http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0 Jan 2006 - Robin Upton - http:// www.RobinUpton.com/research Contents Purpose........................................................................................................... 1 Introduction to Essay Books .......................................................................... 1 Impact of Essay Books ................Read MoreOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pagesexplaining and understanding the diverse nature of organization theory Mapping some aspects of organization theory’s diversity Positivist protagonists: the truth is out there, and we can objectively know it Philosophical disputes around the role of the subjective in science Epistemological and ontolological disputes: how can we ever know the ‘truth’ and is there an ‘out there’? A few words of warning about the term postmodernism Overview of the structure and rationale of the book Chapter summaries Chapter

Apple vs Samsung Patent Battle a Threat to Innovation Free Essays

APPLE VS SAMSUNG PATENT BATTLE A THREAT TO INNOVATION Rather than innovate and develop its own technology and a unique Samsung style for its Smartphone product and computer tablets, Samsung choose to copy Apple’s technology user interface and innovation style in these infringing products. Apple had accused Samsung of copying its intellectual property, including its very broad design patents for rectangular â€Å"electronic devices. And Apple wants to use those patents to stop its competitor from selling items like the new (rectangular) Galaxy tablet and (rectangular) Android-based Smartphone’s. We will write a custom essay sample on Apple vs Samsung Patent Battle a Threat to Innovation or any similar topic only for you Order Now On Aug. 24, a San Jose jury awarded Apple Inc. a whopping $1. 05 billion in damages. Apple-Samsung jury: Verdict †¢The nine-person jury in the trial between the two tech-giants faces a wildly complex form to determine the winner. †¢SAN JOSE, Calif. — There is little doubt that the trial between Apple and Samsung taking place here is complex, and perhaps nowhere is that clearer than in the form that jurors will have to fill out on their way to reaching a verdict later this week. The document, which both sides have yet to agree on, is still in its draft stage. In Samsung’s case, it’s 33 questions long, and stretched across 17 pages. For Apple, it’s 23 questions spread over nine pages. †¢Both forms ask jurors to check off which products infringe on specific patent claims, an exercise that includes going through charts that sometimes span several pages. On Apple’s form there are some 225 checkboxes regarding patent infringement. The other parts of the verdict form ask slightly more nebulous questions, like whether claims within the patents from both sides are valid, and the all-important dollar amount that one side or the other is owed as a result of any infringements. †¢On the bright side, certain patent features are greyed out since not all products carry the identical feature set. That could be a welcome sight for the nine-person jury, who must reach a unanimous decision. Result †¢The jury award shows the growing importance of design for electronic makers. California jury awarded Apple $1. 05 billion in a patent dispute with Samsung. †¢The share price of Samsung electronics dropped nearly 7. 5 %in trading THREAT TO INNOVATION †¢Industry has used copyright as a means of preventing innovation. Copyright was a deliberate weapon to stop innovation, and thus maintain the status quo. The patent system is being used similarly †¢Whether the patent system prevents people like them from entering th e market with their inventions is unknown. They are more than likely to continue working because they are optimists chasing a dream of seeing their invention realised; of being rich, or just creating something that serves a purpose. †¢The barriers to them achieving their goals for themselves and how they are shared to all must be removed. That means renovating the current system to enhance the opportunities for innovation. †¢It will require legislators with the will to change the rules and protocols in the face of opposition from vested interests. It is possible, but the motive may not originate from a wish to assist the corporation – like patents which were conceived to underwrite investments in innovation – but to serve the wider interests of society †¢Ã¢â‚¬ It will lead to fewer choices, less innovation, and potentially higher prices,† Samsung said in a written statement. †¢ â€Å"It is unfortunate that patent law can be manipulated to gi ve one company a monopoly over rectangles with rounded corners, or technology that is being improved every day by Samsung and other companies. †¢Apple, meanwhile, praised the court for â€Å"sending a loud and clear message that stealing isn’t right. † This highlights a central issue in today’s innovation-based economy. †¢Intellectual property law is based on the notion that copying is bad for creativity. It is usually cheaper to copy something than create something wholly new. If innovators are not protected against imitation, they will not invest in more innovation. †¢The real world, however, tells a different story. Imitation is at the centre of an enormous amount of innovation. Rules against copying are sometimes necessary. But in many cases, they serve to slow down innovation. Copying, in short, is often central to creativity. †¢How can copying be beneficial? Because it can enable as well as inhibit innovation. When we think of innovation, we usually picture a lonely genius toiling away until he or she finally has an â€Å"aha! † moment. †¢In fact, innovation is often an incremental, collective and competitive process. And the ability to build on existing creative work — to tweak and refine it — is critical to the creation of new and better things. Copying can also drive the process of invention, as competitors strive to stay ahead. AFFECTS ON CONSUMER †¢Consumers are the real loser in this verdict. †¢Consumers do not get Samsung accused products in U. S market. †¢Consumer confusion between products and functions. †¢Now consumer may not get better existing products for lower prices. BUSINESS LESSONS FROM A PPLE VS SAMSUNG †¢INSPIRATION NOT IMITATION. †¢DELIGHT LEADS TO DESIGN AND NOT THE OTHER WAY ROUND. †¢DON’T MIMIC BUSINESS DNA. †¢WE ALL DO WRONG STUFF BUT IF YOU GET NOTICED AND WARNED BE SMART. How to cite Apple vs Samsung Patent Battle a Threat to Innovation, Papers

A Worn Path Short Story Research Paper free essay sample

Many obstacles can be taken when one desired the most is at risk. Phoenix Jackson is an old woman who has the right intentions, but meets many conflicts on the way. In the short story, â€Å"A Worn Path†, Eudora Welty predicts that one never knows where a path will end up leading them through conflict and symbolism. Phoenix Jackson warns that one never knows where a path will end up leading to. In the short story â€Å"a Worn Path†, Phoenix Jackson goes through many obstacles on the path to find medicine for her â€Å"grandson† (Welty). Phoenix is on a mission to retrieve treatment for her grandson. She is willing to face anything that gets in the way of her path leading to her destination. As Phoenix faces her journey she will reach conflicts beyond the way. While on the path to complete her mission phoenix stumbles upon many conflicts. In the short story â€Å"a Worn Path†, Phoenix comes encounter with intimidation of a â€Å"young hunter† in the woods (Heller). We will write a custom essay sample on A Worn Path Short Story Research Paper or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The hunter tests the old lady of weakness as he boasts of himself throughout the scavenged woods. Although the hunter has a gun with any possible chance to use it on Phoenix, she resembles courage upon the conflict for going about her business and continuing about her quest. In the short story â€Å"a Worn Path†, old woman Phoenix struggled up a hill â€Å"extricate[ed] herself from a thorn bush†, and crossed a log over a creek (Piwinski). As the woman struggles to get out of the bush she chooses to not give up and continue forward her path. The woods may have brought conflict and obstacles to Phoenix, but that won’t stop her from reaching the end of her journey.

Against Abortion (English Assignment) Essays

Against Abortion (English Assignment) Essays Against Abortion (English Assignment) Essay Against Abortion (English Assignment) Essay â€Å"Ive noticed everyone who is for abortion has already been born† (Ronald Reagan). How would you feel if you never got the chance to experience anything? Or never got the chance to live? Even though we go through some tough times, everyone has those moments they wish they could re-live, but what if you didn’t even have a chance to make it to those amazing moments in life all because someone chose to abort her pregnancy and you were the baby in her womb? What if that child was to make a difference in the world? People don’t think about these things when they go into the abortion clinic.Why should abortion be legal if murder is a felony? That is the question that gets people speechless. Although babies are not fully developed when this process is taking place, they are still a living thing with living cells in them and they deserve to have a chance at life. Abortion should be illegal because you are committing murder of a human being, it causes traumatizing dam age physically and/or emotionally, and you will look down upon the choice you made later on in your life. â€Å"Living- in actual existence or use; extant† (www. dictionary. com).The argument that comes up quite frequently is that the baby in the womb is not a human being and that it isn’t a living thing because it is just a fetus. Well, according to the definition of living the fetus in the mothers’ body is in existence inside of her, so that makes that fetus a living thing. Also, when people feel the baby kick they don’t say â€Å"the fetus kicked†, they already know it is a baby and it is living inside of them. All human beings matter and that baby matters whether you planned to get pregnant or if it was an unplanned pregnancy. Eventually, that fetus turns into a beautiful baby.Saying that the fetus isn’t alive is like saying that an adult was never a baby because that person is fully developed now. It is the same thing when you are sayin g that the fetus isn’t alive just because the baby hasn’t fully developed. One thing doctors don’t tell you about abortion is that sometimes it can be emotionally or physically damaging. There are times when women have had an abortion, but later on in life when they want children, they are unable to bear children because the abortion procedure did major damage on the woman’s body. Also, sometimes abortions don’t work.A movie came out this year called October Baby (Christian Broadcasting Network). It is based on a true story about a girl who survived an abortion. The mother went into the clinic to abort her child, but something went wrong with the process and the next day she went into labor and gave birth to two premature twin babies. The girl that was born prematurely and survived the procedure had bad health conditions because of that. It caused her major emotional damage once she found out she was adopted and had been an abortion survivor becaus e her own mother didn’t want her.The other baby died a few weeks after birth because the abortion caused him physical damage to his own body and his little self couldn’t take it. Abortion is a cruel thing and it’s bad for you mentally and sometimes physically. Abortion isn’t an easy thing either. Each procedure is different and gets worse and worse. The lowest procedure is called RU-486. In this procedure they use a drug to kill the baby and it lasts about a week until the baby is dead then the mother gives birth to a dead baby. You’re probably thinking, â€Å"Oh, that’s not too bad†, but it gets worse. In Suction-Aspiration they cut the baby into pieces while in the womb.In the procedure, Dilation and Evacuation (D and E), they use a pliers to grab a hold of each individual body part and twist it until it breaks off. They do this until all that is left is the head and then they crush the skull (Abortion Information You Can Use). Why would you want to do this to a baby that could have been someone great? It is very harsh and half the women that go into the clinic aren’t told what they actually do to the unborn baby. They deserve the right to know what is about to happen inside of their body. At the time, it seems like abortion is the only way to get through life when you are faced with an unwanted pregnancy.It really isn’t the only way and it’s just an excuse for people to fix their mistakes. People know that there are consequences to having sex and not every condom or birth control will actually prevent them from becoming pregnant every single time. Contraceptives have some flaws. Even if you strongly believe a baby will ruin your life and that abortion is the only option left, you will regret it in the long run. The whole reason why abortion was made legal in the United States was because of a woman named Norma McCorvey or otherwise known as â€Å"Jane Roe†. She wanted an abortion a nd wanted it to be legal so she pushed or legalization of the procedure and it worked. Then after that she legally got an abortion (Roe v. Wade). Years after all this happened, McCorvey converted to Christianity and found the God that has always loved her. She soon came to learn that the abortion she had, was wrong. Now she works with an organization called â€Å"Pro-Life† and spends every moment in her life trying to take all regret she had from having the abortion by helping other young woman that were just like her when she was their age by preventing them from getting abortions (Crowe, Janet M).McCorveys story is truly inspiring and proves that you will regret the choice of choosing to abort a human being. McCorvey came across two verses in the Bible that explained why abortion was wrong. In Exodus 20:13 it says, â€Å"You must not murder†, which explains killing someone who is in existence is wrong (Moses; Bible). In Psalm 139:16 it says, â€Å"You saw me before I was born. Every day of my life was recorded in your book.Every moment was laid out before a single day had passed†, that verse tells you that God had a plan for that child within your body and he intended for that child to live life just the way the mother carrying the baby did (David; Bible). No matter what your reason is for an abortion you will always be killing a living thing, be damaging to your emotions and/or body, and you will not be happy with the choice you made. If murder is against the law then so should abortion. The baby is living inside of you, so it can come into this world and live just like the two people that created the baby.The certain procedures that are done to make the pregnancy terminated aren’t considered the most commendable things to do because of the way they are performed and the risks that are at stake. No one is ever going to be proud of aborting a child that could have grown up to be the next â€Å"someone† or actually make a di fference in someone’s life, so why do it? Each person deserves a chance at life and deserves a chance to go through the things people go through every day. Everyone is worthy of at least a shot at being in this world, not to be killed before they even enter this planet.

Study of Video Clips essays

Study of Video Clips essays Nowa days, the adolescent culture is strongly represented through the use of video clips. One singer in particular, Madonna, can be seen as a cultural symbol. She reflects females rights, rebellion and sexuality. This can strongly be seen in the video clip Like A Prayer. Also in the clip cultural and religious issues are strongly challenged. Through out the clip, it conforms that women are the weaker sex. This is shown through a variety of symbols. Madonna mainly influences the older adolescents. The new girl on the scene Sophie Ellis Bextors Clip Get Over You strongly represents the female adolescent culture. There are lots of symbols throughout the clip representing the female culture. It also comes across as the females being the weaker sex even though they dominated the video clip. To most adolescent females, Madonna can strongly be seen as a symbol of power. This strongly comes through in the clip Like a prayer where she challenges Christianity. In the video clip there are many startling images of several burning crosses on a lawn or a hill. These crosses were in the background, while Madonna was facing the camera and singing. This strongly challenges religion and is showing her rebellion. The crossed burning made me think that shes a very out spoken women who has a lot of nerve. The cross is the symbol of Christianity. Seeing the cross engulfed in fire, which symbolizes a destructive force, is very disturbing for anyone to see, even if they are not Christian. Because of Madonnas power over the adolescent culture, I hope that Christians who view the clip do not see this as the right thing to do. Throughout the clip cultural issues are conformed by seeing the abuse of the black man. Madonna also challenges some of the issues presented to the viewer. In one scene it shows a group of white men beating up a white women. When the men run away the black man goes to help he ...

Due Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Due Process - Essay Example The significance of due process to the United States criminal justice system is that it protects criminals from the government. Due process guarantees that no individual is deprived of their rights of life, liberty, or property without first begin given a chance to argue their own case (Morrison, 2008). If any of these aspects are at risk of being rid of, then due process is implemented, allowing them first a hearing or trial to determine their side of the case. Due process essentially goes along the lines of â€Å"innocent until proven guilty†; unless a person has been indeed proven guilty, they cannot be treated as something other than innocent, meaning that they are entitled to everything that the law offers them. While some states only allow due process to be implemented for people of the state, there are many other states that allow it to include individuals as well. Due process has helped many people in the criminal justice system hold on to their rights until a verdict has been set in their case. In a country that prides itself on freedom, the due process clause properly allows it in all

Business accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business accounting - Essay Example This essay discusses that the company, if considered from an angle of investing is quite stable and rewarding but its position in the capital market, London Stock Exchange, in this case, is a little bit skeptical. This is because of its abnormal Price to Earnings Ratio in 2011 of more than 890 times which has decreased from a massive 1043 times in the previous year. This means that the company’s share is trading at 890 times its earnings which depict Next as a very expensive share but in contrast to the previous year, its share has gone through a discount with a reduced P/E ratio. The normal practice in the market is of buying shares with a P/E ratio of maximum 20 times but in this case, speculation seems to have happened in the market.The company, on an overall basis, is quite stable and it has formulated, planned and implemented quite efficient and effective policies to retain its competitiveness in the market domestically as well as internationally. The company’s new growth opportunities are encouraging and if this pace is consistently attained in the future, the company can perform even better and expand effectively. But the company has to prepare for even deteriorating times to come ahead with adverse situations ranging from inflation, rising interest rates, a weakening Euro and fluctuations in other currencies, increasing competition and switching customer preferences and demand. Overall, the company is a good choice to be invested in, taking into account its considerable dividend payout ratio.... Liquidity Analysis Talking about liquidity, the company is performing fine but in contrast to the previous year, it has lacked in some areas. The current and quick ratios have decreased by 0.092 and 0.127 from 2010 to 2011 showing a decrease in liquidity and this is mainly because of a larger increase in current liabilities compared to current assets. Moreover, inventories have increased from a considerable 19.19% from ?309 million to ?368.3 million in 2011, mainly due to the company’s policy of fulfilling market demand and solving out supplier constraints by buying stocks way earlier than required. Though the cash available before share and bond buybacks is a considerable ?92 million, the company has less cash liquidity available in 2011 with a decrease of more than 60% in the cash and cash equivalents balance and the cash ratio falling from 9.83% to only 3.66%. This might obstruct the company in opening and extending new stores and repurchasing more shares in the upcoming ye ar, which has been forecasted at aggressive levels. However, this cash balance can increase in the following year with the rise in the trend of cash customers relative to credit customers or account holders especially in the case of Next Directory; this will in turn definitely decrease the level of accounts receivable and bad debts (CPAClass.com 2011). The manner of collection of receivables and payments to creditors has remained almost the same from 2010 to 2011. But as the inventories have risen, the inventory conversion period has escalated from 47 days to 55 days, which has in turn helped in increasing the cash conversion cycle from 30 to 42 days.

Development Needs in Human Resources

Development Needs in Human Resources Human resource management is defined as the operation within the organization, which has the main objective of recruitment, management and providing direction to the people, who work in the organization. It is an organization function that deals with the issues associated with employee of the organization i.e. performance management, administration of the resources, organizational development, safety, benefits, hiring labor force and providing training. It is also regarded as a necessary and global approach to manage people and workplace environment present in the organization. A good Human Resource management helps the company to improve its productivity and efficiency and also aids in achieving the goal and objectives of the organization. The main aim of HRM is to maximize the productivity and efficiency of the organization by effectively using the capabilities of the employees. (Human Resouce Management) Development Needs The following point emphasize on the development needs required by HR in a company for the expansion of the organization: The presence of curiosity in an individual is the reason for his regular development. It adapts him to react and learn by his internal and external work environments and shows the willingness of the individual to learn and enquire. The person should have the ability to analyze and understand the data and information effectively. And by his judgments is able to use the information, intuitions and knowledge in a sequential order to make reasonable and powerful decisions. The person should have the ability to influence in a difficult situation, to inherit necessary support, liability and consent from a wide range of different stakeholder to attain benefits for the organization. Set goals according to the capability of the person for achieving it. A skilled person would achieve a big task easily compared to a weakly trained one. Continuously plans, priorities and monitor performances to very that other are able to complete a specific task. It is the most significant ability of the HR manager to work co-operatively and effectively with the colleagues, clients, customers, stakeholders, teams and individual within and outside the organization. As a personal credible, a HR manager should keep a track of record of all the consistent and beneficial delivery using the respective technical knowledge and experience and do the job by taking honor in it and with an impartial attitude. A HR manager should be having courage and confidence to speak his thoughts even the circumstances are unfamiliar or faces resistance. The manager should be able to perform his duties even the circumstances are against him. The Hr manager should be a role model for the other employee, by leading them by example and performing his duties impartially, acting with integrity, independence and giving perfect judgments in the organization. (Behavoiur in HR profession) Three Options to Meet the Development Needs Strategy, Insight And Solution This professional area characterizes the use of deep understanding of the business activities and strategies and plans to execute them and the barriers which are not allowing them to perform with full efficiency, and understand the requirements of the customers and employees and having a unique insight that can maximize the performance of the business and transmission of strategies and solution of business. Manager should understand what is the structure of the organization and in which way teams can work together for achievement of companys objectives. And co-relates the data and statistics obtained and having the strategy of the organization and in-year operating plans. Reveals the quality of products or services the company provides and which are the target customers identifies the goal of the organization. Recognize the importance of the ten human resource professional areas and how they combine together to develop humans resource offering for the company. Management of time efficiently and reorganization of priorities .Puts light on how interpersonal skills and credibility is important in developing confidence among the human resources which includes the manager and the employees of the organization. The objective of the HR manager should be understanding the external factors in which the organization operates and the find the factor which can be responsible to bring about change. What potential impact on business can be brought down by changing the environment of the organization and should be favoring a leadership team to explain the response from the employee or the consumers. Identify the stakeholders which are involved in the project which is leaded by you. When the support or assistance from the colleague or senior staff, search for some common grounds. Leading And Managing The Human Resource Function This profession area describes the purpose of HR function that is to lead and manage the organization by having the operational excellence and a deep knowledge of organizational requirement. HR manager has to ensure that the function is capable and has the capacity, and organization design, and the HR employee are deeply engaged and working collaboratively and attains a thorough knowledge of the organization for enlarging the profits of the organization. The HR manager should focus on accomplishment and error less delivery of the task given, and it skillful advice is expected regarding to the human resource strategy and operating plans in the organization. Human resource functions organization design programs should be effectively delivered. Should give stress on effective delivery of resources and management programs prevailing. Monitor the results obtained by performance indicator which measures effectiveness of resource and talent management programs. The skill and the information that is required in this professional area are the capability to build an HR, team activity planning and method to implement it and knowledge of HR budget management. Keep a record of progress attained in all objectives. Query about how your objective is suited with teams or organization objective Employee Relation In this professional area the HR manager has to ensure that the relationship between the staff and the organization is managed properly by an honest and clear framework established by practices and policies of the organization and subsequently by appropriate employment laws. The entire employee related policies and practices should be well informed to the employees. The relation advisors and managers leading the resolute of employee relation issues must be provided with the exact and timely information. Achieving the consensus legally and ethically by managing and facilitating the potential conflicts situation is necessary. Give a helping hand to human resource and managers who are resolving and investigating employee relation issues, such as grievances and disciplinary, and also keeping the appropriate record of the occurrence of the event. They should collect informal and formal feedback from the employees on employee relations, such as communication among the employee, team work, transfer of knowledge and skills. The knowledge required for this professional area is knowledge about the formation of trade union , how are they formed and what are their objectives, hardship related to the employee and disciplinary rules and maintain the health and safety of the employees and the environment they are working in. be accustomed to meet the customer on regular basis so that they should feel free to contact you for any problem they face and so that you able to contact the person for any essential information that is required. Become familiar to HR models with the help of case studies and business literature available. Make sure that your main objectives are attached to the criteria mentioned in the service-level. (Professional Areas) Advantages Of These Option Support and assistance from the senior staff or priors to develop better strategies and plan. Team activity planning Help to provide a better solution through discussion to the problem w.r.t Strategy, Insight and Solution function. Interacting with other Employees in organization helps in developing good relation w.r.t Employee Relation function Helps in the effective use of resources available in the organization w.r.t Leading and managing the human resource function Training and Coaching Develop skills and knowledge, sharpens the mind of employee to plan sophisticated strategies with respect to Strategy, Insight and Solution function. Interaction occurs during the classes and gets to help each other in difficult situation which inculcates good relation among the employees with respect to Employee Relation function. It helps to develop leadership skills and operational excellence with respect to Leading and managing the human resource function Disadvantages Of These Option Besides having advantages these procedures can have several disadvantages which are listed below: Team Activity Planning People may disagree with their ideas to solve the problem which will thus result in poor solution of the problem with respect to Strategy, Insight and Solution function. Conflict can occur due to lack of communication with respect to Employee Relation function. Teams made should have appropriate skillful employees with a common understanding among themselves, if not; it would be unfruitful with respect to Leading and managing the human resource function. Training and Coaching Training would be based on particular stream which could help to develop strategies and would be wastage of money with respect to Strategy, Insight and Solution function. People might have a feeling of incompetency to other employees with respect to Employee Relation function. Would not be able to develop managing qualities as they are self possessed with respect to Leading and managing the human resource function. Development Plan What do I want/need to learn? What will I do to achieve this? What resources or support will I need? What will my success criteria be? Target dates for review and completion Structure of the organization Deep knowledge about the companys strategies and solution. Accessibility to human resource Operational excellence 5 10 days Inspirational leadership Knowledge about the organizational requirement Support from the other employees and colleagues regarding the task Collaborative Working and deeply engaged in performing the task 10-15 days Strategy development and motivator to other employees Capability to build HR, team activity planning Access to business literature and case studies Function has the capacity and organizational design 5-10 day Manage and facilitates conflict situations Formation of trade unions development of the honest and clear framework of the organization Policies and practices prevailing in the organization and information by employee relation advisers. Maintain the health and safety of the employee further helps in satisfaction of the employees and greater work productivity.

? Analyses and Compare the Physical Storage Structures and Types of Available Index of the Latest Versions of: 1. Oracle 2. Sql Server 3. Db2 4. Mysql 5. Teradata

Assignment # 5 (Individual) Submission 29 Dec 11 Objective: To Enhance Analytical Ability and Knowledge * Analyses and Compare the Physical Storage Structures and types of available INDEX of the latest versions of: 1. Oracle 2. SQL Server 3. DB2 4. MySQL 5. Teradata First of all define comparative framework. Recommend one product for organizations of around 2000-4000 employees with sound reasoning based on Physical Storage Structures Introduction to Physical Storage Structures One characteristic of an RDBMS is the independence of logical data structures such as  tables,  views, and  indexes  from physical storage structures.Because physical and logical structures are separate, you can manage physical storage of data without affecting access to logical structures. For example, renaming a database file does not rename the tables stored in it. The following sections explain the physical database structures of an Oracle database, including datafiles, redo log files, and control f iles. Datafiles Every Oracle database has one or more physical  datafiles. The datafiles contain all the database data. The data of logical database structures, such as tables and indexes, is physically stored in the datafiles allocated for a database.The characteristics of datafiles are: * A datafile can be associated with only one database. * Datafiles can have certain characteristics set to let them automatically extend when the database runs out of space. * One or more datafiles form a logical unit of database storage called a tablespace. Data in a datafile is read, as needed, during normal database operation and stored in the memory cache of Oracle. For example, assume that a user wants to access some data in a table of a database. If the requested information is not already in the memory cache for the database, then it is read from the appropriate atafiles and stored in memory. Modified or new data is not necessarily written to a datafile immediately. To reduce the amount of disk access and to increase performance, data is pooled in memory and written to the appropriate datafiles all at once, as determined by the  database writer process (DBWn)  background process. Control Files Every Oracle database has a  control file. A control file contains entries that specify the physical structure of the database. For example, it contains the following information: * Database name * Names and locations of datafiles and redo log files * Time stamp of database creationOracle can  multiplex  the control file, that is, simultaneously maintain a number of identical control file copies, to protect against a failure involving the control file. Every time an  instance  of an Oracle database is started, its control file identifies the database and redo log files that must be opened for database operation to proceed. If the physical makeup of the database is altered, (for example, if a new datafile or redo log file is created), then the control file is autom atically modified by Oracle to reflect the change. A control file is also used in database recovery. Redo Log FilesEvery Oracle database has a set of two or more  redo log files. The set of redo log files is collectively known as the redo log for the database. A redo log is made up of redo entries (also called  redo records). The primary function of the redo log is to record all changes made to data. If a failure prevents modified data from being permanently written to the datafiles, then the changes can be obtained from the redo log, so work is never lost. To protect against a failure involving the redo log itself, Oracle allows a  multiplexed redo log  so that two or more copies of the redo log can be maintained on different disks.The information in a redo log file is used only to recover the database from a system or media failure that prevents database data from being written to the datafiles. For example, if an unexpected power outage terminates database operation, then data in memory cannot be written to the datafiles, and the data is lost. However, lost data can be recovered when the database is opened, after power is restored. By applying the information in the most recent redo log files to the database datafiles, Oracle restores the database to the time at which the power failure occurred.The process of applying the redo log during a recovery operation is called  rolling forward. Archive Log Files You can enable automatic archiving of the redo log. Oracle automatically archives log files when the database is in  ARCHIVELOG  mode. Parameter Files Parameter files contain a list of configuration parameters for that instance and database. Oracle recommends that you create a server parameter file (SPFILE) as a dynamic means of maintaining initialization parameters. A server parameter file lets you store and manage your initialization parameters persistently in a server-side disk file.Alert and Trace Log Files Each server and background proces s can write to an associated trace file. When an internal error is detected by a process, it dumps information about the error to its trace file. Some of the information written to a trace file is intended for the database administrator, while other information is for Oracle Support Services. Trace file information is also used to tune applications and instances. The alert file, or alert log, is a special trace file. The alert file of a database is a chronological log of messages and errors. Backup Files To restore a file is to replace it with a backup file.Typically, you restore a file when a media failure or user error has damaged or deleted the original file. User-managed backup and recovery requires you to actually restore backup files before you can perform a trial recovery of the backups. Server-managed backup and recovery manages the backup process, such as scheduling of backups, as well as the recovery process, such as applying the correct backup file when recovery is needed . A database  instance  is a set of memory structures that manage database files. Figure 11-1  shows the relationship between the instance and the files that it manages.Figure 11-1 Database Instance and Database Files Mechanisms for Storing Database Files Several mechanisms are available for allocating and managing the storage of these files. The most common mechanisms include: 1. Oracle Automatic Storage Management (Oracle ASM) Oracle ASM includes a file system designed exclusively for use by Oracle Database. 2. Operating system file system Most Oracle databases store files in a  file system, which is a data structure built inside a contiguous disk address space. All operating systems have  file managers that allocate and deallocate disk space into files within a file system.A file system enables disk space to be allocated to many files. Each file has a name and is made to appear as a contiguous address space to applications such as Oracle Database. The database can creat e, read, write, resize, and delete files. A file system is commonly built on top of a  logical volume  constructed by a software package called a  logical volume manager (LVM). The LVM enables pieces of multiple physical disks to be combined into a single contiguous address space that appears as one disk to higher layers of software. 3. Raw device Raw devices  are disk partitions or logical volumes not formatted with a file system.The primary benefit of raw devices is the ability to perform  direct I/O  and to write larger buffers. In direct I/O, applications write to and read from the storage device directly, bypassing the operating system buffer cache. 4. Cluster file system A  cluster file system  is software that enables multiple computers to share file storage while maintaining consistent space allocation and file content. In an Oracle RAC environment, a cluster file system makes shared storage appears as a file system shared by many computers in a clustered env ironment.With a cluster file system, the failure of a computer in the cluster does not make the file system unavailable. In an operating system file system, however, if a computer sharing files through NFS or other means fails, then the file system is unavailable. A database employs a combination of the preceding storage mechanisms. For example, a database could store the control files and online redo log files in a traditional file system, some user data files on raw partitions, the remaining data files in Oracle ASM, and archived the redo log files to a cluster file system. Indexes in OracleThere are several types of indexes available in Oracle all designed for different circumstances: 1. b*tree indexes – the most common type (especially in OLTP environments) and the default type 2. b*tree cluster indexes – for clusters 3. hash cluster indexes – for hash clusters 4. reverse key indexes – useful in Oracle Real Application Cluster (RAC) applications 5. bi tmap indexes – common in data warehouse applications 6. partitioned indexes – also useful for data warehouse applications 7. function-based indexes 8. index organized tables 9. domain indexesLet's look at these Oracle index types in a little more detail. B*Tree Indexes B*tree stands for balanced tree. This means that the height of the index is the same for all values thereby ensuring that retrieving the data for any one value takes approximately the same amount of time as for any other value. Oracle b*tree indexes are best used when each value has a high cardinality (low number of occurrences)for example primary key indexes or unique indexes. One important point to note is that NULL values are not indexed. They are the most common type of index in OLTP systems. B*Tree Cluster IndexesThese are B*tree index defined for clusters. Clusters are two or more tables with one or more common columns and are usually accessed together (via a join). CREATE INDEX product_orders_ix O N CLUSTER product_orders; Hash Cluster Indexes In a hash cluster rows that have the same hash key value (generated by a hash function) are stored together in the Oracle database. Hash clusters are equivalent to indexed clusters, except the index key is replaced with a hash function. This also means that here is no separate index as the hash is the index. CREATE CLUSTER emp_dept_cluster (dept_id NUMBER) HASHKEYS 50; Reverse Key IndexesThese are typically used in Oracle Real Application Cluster (RAC) applications. In this type of index the bytes of each of the indexed columns are reversed (but the column order is maintained). This is useful when new data is always inserted at one end of the index as occurs when using a sequence as it ensures new index values are created evenly across the leaf blocks preventing the index from becoming unbalanced which may in turn affect performance. CREATE INDEX emp_ix ON emp(emp_id) REVERSE; Bitmap Indexes These are commonly used in data warehouse app lications for tables with no updates and whose columns have low cardinality (i. . there are few distinct values). In this type of index Oracle stores a bitmap for each distinct value in the index with 1 bit for each row in the table. These bitmaps are expensive to maintain and are therefore not suitable for applications which make a lot of writes to the data. For example consider a car manufacturer which records information about cars sold including the colour of each car. Each colour is likely to occur many times and is therefore suitable for a bitmap index. CREATE BITMAP INDEX car_col ON cars(colour) REVERSE; Partitioned IndexesPartitioned Indexes are also useful in Oracle datawarehouse applications where there is a large amount of data that is partitioned by a particular dimension such as time. Partition indexes can either be created as local partitioned indexes or global partitioned indexes. Local partitioned indexes mean that the index is partitioned on the same columns and wit h the same number of partitions as the table. For global partitioned indexes the partitioning is user defined and is not the same as the underlying table. Refer to the create index statement in the Oracle SQL language reference for details. Function-based IndexesAs the name suggests these are indexes created on the result of a function modifying a column value. For example CREATE INDEX upp_ename ON emp(UPPER(ename((; The function must be deterministic (always return the same value for the same input). Index Organized Tables In an index-organized table all the data is stored in the Oracle database in a B*tree index structure defined on the table's primary key. This is ideal when related pieces of data must be stored together or data must be physically stored in a specific order. Index-organized tables are often used for information retrieval, spatial and OLAP applications.Domain Indexes These indexes are created by user-defined indexing routines and enable the user to define his or h er own indexes on custom data types (domains) such as pictures, maps or fingerprints for example. These types of index require in-depth knowledge about the data and how it will be accessed. Indexes in Sql Server Index type| Description| Clustered| A clustered index sorts and stores the data rows of the table or view in order based on the clustered index key. The clustered index is implemented as a B-tree index structure that supports fast retrieval of the rows, based on their clustered index key values. Nonclustered| A nonclustered index can be defined on a table or view with a clustered index or on a heap. Each index row in the nonclustered index contains the nonclustered key value and a row locator. This locator points to the data row in the clustered index or heap having the key value. The rows in the index are stored in the order of the index key values, but the data rows are not guaranteed to be in any particular order unless a clustered index is created on the table. | Unique| A unique index ensures that the index key contains no duplicate values and therefore every row in the table or view is in some way unique.Both clustered and nonclustered indexes can be unique. | Index with included columns| A nonclustered index that is extended to include nonkey columns in addition to the key columns. | Full-text| A special type of token-based functional index that is built and maintained by the Microsoft Full-Text Engine for SQL Server. It provides efficient support for sophisticated word searches in character string data. | Spatial| A spatial index provides the ability to perform certain operations more efficiently on spatial objects (spatial data) in a column of the  geometry  data type.The spatial index reduces the number of objects on which relatively costly spatial operations need to be applied. | Filtered| An optimized nonclustered index especially suited to cover queries that select from a well-defined subset of data. It uses a filter predicate to index a portion of rows in the table. A well-designed filtered index can improve query performance, reduce index maintenance costs, and reduce index storage costs compared with full-table indexes. | XML| A shredded, and persisted, representation of the XML binary large objects (BLOBs) in the  xml  data type column. | SQL Server Storage StructuresSQL Server does not see data and storage in exactly the same way a DBA or end-user does. DBA sees initialized devices, device fragments allocated to databases, segments defined within Databases, tables defined within segments, and rows stored in tables. SQL Server views storage at a lower level as device fragments allocated to databases, pages allocated to tables and indexes within the database, and information stored on pages. There are two basic types of storage structures in a database. * Linked data pages * Index trees. All information in SQL Server is stored at the page level. When a database is created, all spaceAllocated to it is divid ed into a number of pages, each page 2KB in size. There are five types of pages within SQL Server: 1. Data and log pages 2. Index pages 3. Text/image pages 4. Allocation pages 5. Distribution pages All pages in SQL Server contain a page header. The page header is 32 bytes in size and contains the logical page number, the next and previous logical page numbers in the page linkage, the object_id of the object to which the page belongs, the minimum row size, the next available row number within the page, and the byte location of the start of the free space on the page.The contents of a page header can be examined by using the dbcc page command. You must be logged in as sa to run the dbcc page command. The syntax for the dbcc page command is as follows: dbcc page (dbid | page_no [,0 | 1 | 2]) The SQL Server keeps track of which object a page belongs to, if any. The allocation of pages within SQL Server is managed through the use of allocation units and allocation pages. Allocation Pages Space is allocated to a SQL Server database by the create database and alter database commands. The space allocated to a database is divided into a number of 2KB pages.Each page is assigned a logical page number starting at page 0 and increased sequentially. The pages are then divided into allocation units of 256 contiguous 2KB pages, or 512 bytes (1/2 MB) each. The first page of each allocation unit is an allocation page that controls the allocation of all pages within the allocation unit. The allocation pages control the allocation of pages to tables and indexes within the database. Pages are allocated in contiguous blocks of eight pages called extents. The minimum unit of allocation within a database is an extent.When a table is created, it is initially assigned a single extent, or 16KB of space, even if the table contains no rows. There are 32 extents within an allocation unit (256/8). An allocation page contains 32 extent structures for each extent within that allocation unit. Each extent structure is 16 bytes and contains the following information: 1. Object ID of object to which extent is allocated 2. Next extent ID in chain 3. Previous extent ID in chain 4. Allocation bitmap 5. Deallocation bitmap 6. Index ID (if any) to which the extent is allocated 7. StatusThe allocation bitmap for each extent structure indicates which pages within the allocated extent are in use by the table. The deallocation bit map is used to identify pages that have become empty during a transaction that has not yet been completed. The actual marking of the page as unused does not occur until the transaction is committed, to prevent another transaction from allocating the page before the transaction is complete. Data Pages A data page is the basic unit of storage within SQL Server. All the other types of pages within a database are essentially variations of the data page.All data pages contain a 32-byte header, as described earlier. With a 2KB page (2048 bytes) this leaves 2016 bytes for storing data within the data page. In SQL Server, data rows cannot cross page boundaries. The maximum size of a single row is 1962 bytes, including row overhead. Data pages are linked to one another by using the page pointers (prevpg, nextpg) contained in the page header. This page linkage enables SQL Server to locate all rows in a table by scanning all pages in the link. Data page linkage can be thought of as a two-way linked list.This enables SQL Server to easily link new pages into or unlink pages from the page linkage by adjusting the page pointers. In addition to the page header, each data page also contains data rows and a row offset table. The row-offset table grows backward from the end of the page and contains the location or each row on the data page. Each entry is 2 bytes wide. Data Rows Data is stored on data pages in data rows. The size of each data row is a factor of the sum of the size of the columns plus the row overhead. Each record in a data page is assi gned a row number. A single byte is used within each row to store the row number.Therefore, SQL Server has a maximum limit of 256 rows per page, because that is the largest value that can be stored in a single byte (2^8). For a data row containing all fixed-length columns, there are four bytes of overhead per row: 1. Byte to store the number of variable-length columns (in this case, 0) 1 byte to store the row number. 2. Bytes in the row offset table at the end of the page to store the location of the row on the page. If a data row contains variable-length columns, there is additional overhead per row. A data row is variable in size if any column is defined as varchar, varbinary, or allows null values.In addition to the 4 bytes of overhead described previously, the following bytes are required to store the actual row width and location of columns within the data row: 2 bytes to store the total row width 1 byte per variable-length column to store the starting location of the column wi thin the row 1 byte for the column offset table 1 additional byte for each 256-byte boundary passed Within each row containing variable-length columns, SQL Server builds a column offset table backward for the end of the row for each variable-length column in the table.Because only 1 byte is used for each column with a maximum offset of 255, an adjust byte must be created for each 256-byte boundary crossed as an additional offset. Variable-length columns are always stored after all fixed-length columns, regardless of the order of the columns in the table definition. Estimating Row and Table Sizes Knowing the size of a data row and the corresponding overhead per row helps you determine the number of rows that can be stored per page.The number of rows per page affects the system performance. A greater number of rows per page can help query performance by reducing the number of ages that need to be read to satisfy the query. Conversely, fewer rows per page help improve performance for c oncurrent transactions by reducing the chances of two or more users accessing rows on the same page that may be locked. Let's take a look at how you can estimate row and table sizes. Fixed-length fields with no null values.Sum of column widths overhead- The Row Offset Table The location of a row within a page is determined by using the row offset table at the end of the page. To find a specific row within the page, SQL Server looks in the row offset table for the starting byte address within the data page for that row ID. Note that SQL Server keeps all free space at the end of the data page, shifting rows up to fill in where a previous row was deleted and ensuring no space fragmentation within the page.If the offset table contains a zero value for a row ID that indicates that the row has been deleted. Index Structure All SQL Server indexes are B-Trees. There is a single root page at the top of the tree, branching out into N number of pages at each intermediate level until it reaches the bottom, or leaf level, of the index. The index tree is traversed by following pointers from the upper-level pages down through the lower-level pages. In addition, each index level is a separate page chain. There may be many intermediate levels in an index.The number of levels is dependent on the index key width, the type of index, and the number of rows and/or pages in the table. The number of levels is important in relation to index performance. Non-clustered Indexes A non-clustered index is analogous to an index in a textbook. The data is stored in one place, the index in another, with pointers to the storage location of the data. The items in the index are stored in the order of the index key values, but the information in the table is stored in a different order (which can be dictated by a clustered index).If no clustered index is created on the table, the rows are not guaranteed to be in any particular order. Similar to the way you use an index in a book, Microsoft ® SQL Serverâ„ ¢ 2000 searches for a data value by searching the non-clustered index to find the location of the data value in the table and then retrieves the data directly from that location. This makes non-clustered indexes the optimal choice for exact match queries because the index contains entries describing the exact location in the table of the data values being searched for in the queries.If the underlying table is sorted using a clustered index, the location is the clustering key value; otherwise, the location is the row ID (RID) comprised of the file number, page number, and slot number of the row. For example, to search for an employee ID (emp_id) in a table that has a non-clustered index on the emp_id column, SQL Server looks through the index to find an entry that lists the exact page and row in the table where the matching emp_id can be found, and then goes directly to that page and row. Clustered IndexesA clustered index determines the physical order of data in a table . A clustered index is analogous to a telephone directory, which arranges data by last name. Because the clustered index dictates the physical storage order of the data in the table, a table can contain only one clustered index. However, the index can comprise multiple columns (a composite index), like the way a telephone directory is organized by last name and first name. Clustered Indexes are very similar to Oracle's IOT's (Index-Organized Tables).A clustered index is particularly efficient on columns that are often searched for ranges of values. After the row with the first value is found using the clustered index, rows with subsequent indexed values are guaranteed to be physically adjacent. For example, if an application frequently executes a query to retrieve records between a range of dates, a clustered index can quickly locate the row containing the beginning date, and then retrieve all adjacent rows in the table until the last date is reached. This can help increase the perf ormance of this type of query.Also, if there is a column(s) that is used frequently to sort the data retrieved from a table, it can be advantageous to cluster (physically sort) the table on that column(s) to save the cost of a sort each time the column(s) is queried. Clustered indexes are also efficient for finding a specific row when the indexed value is unique. For example, the fastest way to find a particular employee using the unique employee ID column emp_id is to create a clustered index or PRIMARY KEY constraint on the emp_id column.Note  Ã‚  PRIMARY KEY constraints create clustered indexes automatically if no clustered index already exists on the table and a non-clustered index is not specified when you create the PRIMARY KEY constraint. Index Structures Indexes are created on columns in tables or views. The index provides a fast way to look up data based on the values within those columns. For example, if you create an index on the primary key and then search for a row of data based on one of the primary key values, SQL Server first finds that value in the index, and then uses the index to quickly locate the entire row of data.Without the index, a table scan would have to be performed in order to locate the row, which can have a significant effect on performance. You can create indexes on most columns in a table or a view. The exceptions are primarily those columns configured with large object (LOB) data types, such as  image,  text,  and  varchar(max). You can also create indexes on XML columns, but those indexes are slightly different from the basic index and are beyond the scope of this article. Instead, I'll focus on those indexes that are implemented most commonly in a SQL Server database.An index is made up of a set of pages (index nodes) that are organized in a B-tree structure. This structure is hierarchical in nature, with the root node at the top of the hierarchy and the leaf nodes at the bottom, as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: B-t ree structure of a SQL Server index When a query is issued against an indexed column, the query engine starts at the root node and navigates down through the intermediate nodes, with each layer of the intermediate level more granular than the one above. The query engine continues down through the index nodes until it reaches the leaf node.For example, if you’re searching for the value 123 in an indexed column, the query engine would first look in the root level to determine which page to reference in the top intermediate level. In this example, the first page points the values 1-100, and the second page, the values 101-200, so the query engine would go to the second page on that level. The query engine would then determine that it must go to the third page at the next intermediate level. From there, the query engine would navigate to the leaf node for value 123.The leaf node will contain either the entire row of data or a pointer to that row, depending on whether the index is clustered or nonclustered. Clustered Indexes A clustered index stores the actual data rows at the leaf level of the index. Returning to the example above, that would mean that the entire row of data associated with the primary key value of 123 would be stored in that leaf node. An important characteristic of the clustered index is that the indexed values are sorted in either ascending or descending order.As a result, there can be only one clustered index on a table or view. In addition, data in a table is sorted only if a clustered index has been defined on a table. Note:  A table that has a clustered index is referred to as a  clustered table. A table that has no clustered index is referred to as a  heap. Nonclustered Indexes Unlike a clustered indexed, the leaf nodes of a nonclustered index contain only the values from the indexed columns and row locators that point to the actual data rows, rather than contain the data rows themselves.This means that the query engine must t ake an additional step in order to locate the actual data. A row locator’s structure depends on whether it points to a clustered table or to a heap. If referencing a clustered table, the row locator points to the clustered index, using the value from the clustered index to navigate to the correct data row. If referencing a heap, the row locator points to the actual data row. Nonclustered indexes cannot be sorted like clustered indexes; however, you can create more than one nonclustered index per table or view.SQL Server 2005 supports up to 249 nonclustered indexes, and SQL Server 2008 support up to 999. This certainly doesn’t mean you should create that many indexes. Indexes can both help and hinder performance, as I explain later in the article. In addition to being able to create multiple nonclustered indexes on a table or view, you can also add  included columns  to your index. This means that you can store at the leaf level not only the values from the indexed column, but also the values from non-indexed columns. This strategy allows you to get around some of the limitations on indexes.For example, you can include non-indexed columns in order to exceed the size limit of indexed columns (900 bytes in most cases). Index Types In addition to an index being clustered or nonclustered, it can be configured in other ways: * Composite index:  An index that contains more than one column. In both SQL Server 2005 and 2008, you can include up to 16 columns in an index, as long as the index doesn’t exceed the 900-byte limit. Both clustered and nonclustered indexes can be composite indexes. * Unique Index:  An index that ensures the uniqueness of each value in the indexed column.If the index is a composite, the uniqueness is enforced across the columns as a whole, not on the individual columns. For example, if you were to create an index on the FirstName and LastName columns in a table, the names together must be unique, but the individual n ames can be duplicated. A unique index is automatically created when you define a primary key or unique constraint: * Primary key:  When you define a primary key constraint on one or more columns, SQL Server automatically creates a unique, clustered index if a clustered index does not already exist on the table or view.However, you can override the default behavior and define a unique, nonclustered index on the primary key. * Unique:  When you define a unique constraint, SQL Server automatically creates a unique, nonclustered index. You can specify that a unique clustered index be created if a clustered index does not already exist on the table. * Covering index:  A type of index that includes all the columns that are needed to process a particular query. For example, your query might retrieve the FirstName and LastName columns from a table, based on a value in the ContactID column.You can create a covering index that includes all three columns. Teradata What is the Teradata R DBMS? The Teradata RDBMS is a complete relational database management system. With the Teradata RDBMS, you can access, store, and operate on data using Teradata Structured Query Language (Teradata SQL). It is broadly compatible with IBM and ANSI SQL. Users of the client system send requests to the Teradata RDBMS through the Teradata Director Program (TDP) using the Call-Level Interface (CLI) program (Version 2) or via Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) using the Teradata ODBC Driver.As data requirements grow increasingly complex, so does the need for a faster, simpler way to manage data warehouse. That combination of unmatched performance and efficient management is built into the foundation of the Teradata Database. The Teradata Database is continuously being enhanced with new features and functionality that automatically distribute data and balance mixed workloads even in the most complex environments.Teradata Database 14  currently offers low total cost of ownership in a simple, scalable, parallel and self-managing solution. This proven, high-performance decision support engine running on the  Teradata Purpose-Built Platform Family offers a full suite of data access and management tools, plus world-class services. The Teradata Database supports installations from fewer than 10 gigabytes to huge warehouses with hundreds of terabytes and thousands of customers. Features & BenefitsAutomatic Built-In Functionality  | Fast Query Performance  | â€Å"Parallel Everything† design and smart Teradata Optimizer enables fast query execution across platforms| | Quick Time to Value  | Simple set up steps with automatic â€Å"hands off† distribution of data, along with integrated load utilities result in rapid installations| | Simple to Manage  | DBAs never have to set parameters, manage table space, or reorganize data| | Responsive to Business Change  | Fully parallel MPP â€Å"shared nothing† architecture scales linearly across data, us ers, and applications providing consistent and predictable performance and growth| Easy Set & G0† Optimization Options  | Powerful, Embedded Analytics  | In-database data mining, virtual OLAP/cubes, geospatial and temporal analytics, custom and embedded services in an extensible open parallel framework drive efficient and differentiated business insight| | Advanced Workload Management  | Workload management options by user, application, time of day and CPU exceptions| | Intelligent Scan Elimination  | â€Å"Set and Go† options reduce full file scanning (Primary, Secondary, Multi-level Partitioned Primary, Aggregate Join Index, Sync Scan)| Physical Storage Structure of Teradata Teradata offers a true hybrid row and Column database.All database management systems constantly tinker with the internal structure of the files on disk. Each release brings an improvement or two that has been steadily improving analytic workload performance. However, few of the key player s in relational database management systems (RDBMS) have altered the fundamental structure of having all of the columns of the table stored consecutively on disk for each record. The innovations and practical use cases of â€Å"columnar databases† have come from the independent vendor world, where it has proven to be quite effective in the performance of an increasingly important class of analytic query.These columnar databases store data by columns instead of rows. This means that all values of a single column are stored consecutively on disk. The columns are tied together as â€Å"rows† only in a catalog reference. This gives a much finer grain of control to the RDBMS data manager. It can access only the columns required for the query as opposed to being forced to access all columns of the row. It’s optimal for queries that need a small percentage of the columns in the tables they are in but suboptimal when you need most of the columns due to the overhead in a ttaching all of the columns together to form the result sets.Teradata 14 Hybrid Columnar The unique innovation by Teradata, in Teradata 14, is to add columnar structure to a table, effectively mixing row structure, column structures and multi-column structures directly in the DBMS which already powers many of the largest data warehouses in the world. With intelligent exploitation of Teradata Columnar in Teradata 14, there is no longer the need to go outside the data warehouse DBMS for the power of performance that columnar provides, and it is no longer necessary to sacrifice robustness and support in the DBMS that holds the post-operational data.A major component of that robustness is parallelism, a feature that has obviously fueled much of Teradata’s leadership position in large-scale enterprise data warehousing over the years. Teradata’s parallelism, working with the columnar elements, are creating an entirely new paradigm in analytic computing – the pinpoint accuracy of I/O with column and row partition elimination. With columnar and parallelism, the I/O executes very precisely on data interesting to the query. This is finally a strong, and appropriate, architectural response to the I/O bottleneck issue that analytic queries have been living with for a decade.It also may be Teradata Database’s most significant enhancement in that time. The physical structure of each container can also be in row (extensive page metadata including a map to offsets) which is referred to as â€Å"row storage format,† or columnar (the row â€Å"number† is implied by the value’s relative position). Partition Elimination and Columnar The idea of data division to create smaller units of work as well as to make those units of work relevant to the query is nothing new to Teradata Database, and most DBMSs for that matter.While the concept is being applied now to the columns of a table, it has long been applied to its rows in the form of partitioning and parallelism. One of the hallmarks of Teradata’s unique approach is that all database functions (table scan, index scan, joins, sorts, insert, delete, update, load and all utilities) are done in parallel all of the time. There is no conditional parallelism. All units of parallelism participate in each database action. Teradata eliminates partitions from needing I/O by reading its metadata to understand the range of data placed into the partitions and eliminating those that are washed out by the predicates.See Figure There is no change to partition elimination in Teradata 14 except that the approach also works with columnar data, creating a combination row and column elimination possibility. In a partitioned, multi-container table, the unneeded containers will be virtually eliminated from consideration based on the selection and projection conditions of the query. See Figure Following the column elimination, unneeded partitions will be virtually eliminated fro m consideration based on the projection conditions.For the price of a few metadata reads to facilitate the eliminations, the I/O can now specifically retrieve a much focused set of data. The addition of columnar elimination reduces the expensive I/O operation, and hence the query execution time, by orders of magnitude for column-selective queries. The combination of row and column elimination is a unique characteristic of Teradata’s implementation of columnar. Compression in Teradata Columnar Storage costs, while decreasing on a per-capita basis over time, are still consuming increasing budget due to the massive increase in the volume of data to store.While the data is required to be under management, it is equally required that the data be compressed. In addition to saving on storage costs, compression also greatly aids the I/O problem, effectively offering up more relevant information in each I/O. Columnar storage provides a unique opportunity to take advantage of a series of compression routines that make more sense when dealing with well-defined data that has limited variance like a column (versus a row with high variability. ) Teradata Columnar utilizes several compression methods that take advantage of the olumnar orientation of the data. A few methods are highlighted below. Run-Length Encoding When there are repeating values (e. g. , many successive rows with the value of ‘12/25/11’ in the date container), these are easily compressed in columnar systems like Teradata Columnar, which uses â€Å"run length encoding† to simply indicate the range of rows for which the value applies. Dictionary Encoding Even when the values are not repeating successively, as in the date example, if they are repeating in the container, there is opportunity to do a dictionary representation of the data to further save space.Dictionary encoding is done in Teradata Columnar by storing compressed forms of the complete value. The dictionary representatio ns are fixed length which allows the data pages to remain void of internal maps to where records begin. The records begin at fixed offsets from the beginning of the container and no â€Å"value-level† metadata is required. This small fact saves calculations at run-time for page navigation, another benefit of columnar. For example, 1=Texas, 2=Georgia and 3=Florida could be in the dictionary, and when those are the column values, the 1, 2 and 3 are used in lieu of Texas, Georgia and Florida.If there are 1,000,000 customers with only 50 possible values for state, the entire vector could be stored with 1,000,000 bytes (one byte minimum per value). In addition to dictionary compression, including the â€Å"trimming†8 of character fields, traditional compression (with algorithm UTF8) is made available to Teradata Columnar data. Delta Compression Fields in a tight range of values can also benefit from only storing the offset (â€Å"delta†) from a set value. Teradata Co lumnar calculates an average for a container and can store only the offsets from that value in place of the field.Whereas the value itself might be an integer, the offsets can be small integers, which double the space utilization. Compression methods like this lose their effectiveness when a variety of field types, such as found in a typical row, need to be stored consecutively. The compression methods are applied automatically (if desired) to each container, and can vary across all the columns of a table or even from container to container within a column9 based on the characteristics of the data in the container.Multiple methods can be used with each column, which is a strong feature of Teradata Columnar. The compounding effect of the compression in columnar databases is a tremendous improvement over the standard compression that would be available for a strict row-based DBMS. Teradata Indexes Teradata provides several indexing options for optimizing the performance of your relati onal databases. i. Primary Indexes ii. Secondary Indexes iii. Join Indexes iv. Hash Indexes v. Reference Indexes Primary Index Primary index determines the distribution of table rows on the disks controlled by AMPs.In Teradata RDBMS, a primary index is required for row distribution and storage. When a new row is inserted, its hash code is derived by applying a hashing algorithm to the value in the column(s) of the primary code (as show in the following figure). Rows having the same primary index value are stored on the same AMP. Rules for defining primary indexes The primary indexes for a table should represent the data values most used by the SQL to access the data for the table. Careful selection of the primary index is one of the most important steps in creating a table.Defining primary indexes should follow the following rules: * A primary index should be defined to provide a nearly uniform distribution of rows among the AMPs, the more unique the index, the more even the distrib ution of rows and the better space utilization. * The index should be defined on as few columns as possible. * Primary index can be either Unique or non-unique. A unique index must have a unique value in the corresponding fields of every row;   a non-unique index permits the insertion of duplicate field values. The unique primary index is more efficient. Once created, the primary index cannot be dropped or modified, the index must be changed by recreating the table. If a primary index is not defined in the CREATE TABLE statement through an explicit declaration of a PRIMARY INDEX, the default is to use one of the following: * PRIMARY key * First UNIQUE constraint * First column The primary index values are stored in an integral part of the primary table. It should be based on the set selection most frequently used to access rows from a table and on the uniqueness of the value.Secondary Index In addition to a primary index, up to 32 unique and non-unique secondary indexes can be def ined for a table. Comparing to primary indexes, Secondary indexes allow access to information in a table by alternate, less frequently used paths. A secondary index is a subtable that is stored in all AMPs, but separately from the primary table. The subtables, which are built and maintained by the system, contain the following; * RowIDs of the subtable rows * Base table index column values * RowIDs of the base table rows (points)As shown in the following figure, the secondary index subtable on each AMP is associated with the base table by the rowID . Defining and creating secondary index Secondary index are optional. Unlike the primary index, a secondary index can be added or dropped without recreating the table. There can be one or more secondary indexes in the CREATE TABLE statement, or add them to an existing table using the CREATE INDEX statement or ALTER TABLE statement. DROP INDEX can be used to dropping a named or unnamed secondary index.Since secondary indexes require subtab les, these subtables require additional disk space and, therefore, may require additional I/Os for INSERTs, DELETEs, and UPDATEs. Generally, secondary index are defined on column values frequently used in WHERE constraints. Join Index A join index is an indexing structure containing columns from multiple tables, specifically the resulting columns form one or more tables. Rather than having to join individual tables each time the join operation is needed, the query can be resolved via a join index and, in most cases, dramatically improve performance.Effects of Join index Depending on the complexity of the joins, the Join Index helps improve the performance of certain types of work. The following need to be considered when manipulating join indexes: * Load Utilities  Ã‚  Ã‚   The join indexes are not supported by MultiLoad and FastLoad utilities, they must be dropped and   recreated after the table has been loaded. * Archive and Restore  Ã‚  Ã‚   Archive and Restore cannot be us ed on join index itself. During a restore of   a base table or database, the join index is marked as invalid.The join index must be dropped and recreated before it can be used again in the execution of queries. * Fallback Protection  Ã‚  Ã‚   Join index subtables cannot be Fallback-protected. * Permanent Journal Recovery  Ã‚  Ã‚   The join index is not automatically rebuilt during the recovery process. Instead, the join index is marked as invalid and the join index must be dropped and recreated before it can be used again in the execution of queries. * Triggers  Ã‚  Ã‚   A join index cannot be defined on a table with triggers. Collecting Statistics  Ã‚  Ã‚   In general, there is no benefit in collecting statistics on a join index for joining columns specified in the join index definition itself. Statistics related to these columns should be collected on the underlying base table rather than on the join index. Defining and creating secondary index Join indexes can be create d and dropped by using CREATE JOIN INDEX and DROP JOIN INDEX statements. Join indexes are automatically maintained by the system when updates (UPDATE, DELETE, and INSERT) are performed on the underlying base tables.Additional steps are included in the execution plan to regenerate the affected portion of the stored join result. Hash Indexes Hash indexes are used for the same purposes as single-table join indexes. The principal difference between hash and single-table join indexes are listed in the following table. Hash indexes create a full or partial replication of a base table with a primary index on a foreign key column table to facilitate joins of very large tables by hashing them to the same AMP. You can define a hash index on one table only.The functionality of hash indexes is a superset to that of single-table join indexes. Hash indexes are not indexes in the usual sense of the word. They are base tables that cannot be accessed directly by a query. The Optimizer includes a has h index in a query plan in the following situations. * The index covers all or part of a join query, thus eliminating the need to redistribute rows to make the join. In the case of partial query covers, the Optimizer uses certain implicitly defined elements in the hash index to join it with its underlying base table to pick up the base table columns necessary to complete the cover. A query requests that one or more columns be aggregated, thus eliminating the need to perform the aggregate computation For the most part, hash index storage is identical to standard base table storage except that hash indexes can be compressed. Hash index rows are hashed and partitioned on their primary index (which is always defined as non-unique). Hash index tables can be indexed explicitly, and their indexes are stored just like non-unique primary indexes for any other base table.Unlike join indexes, hash index definitions do not permit you to specify secondary indexes. The major difference in storage between hash indexes and standard base tables is the manner in which the repeated field values of a hash index are stored. Reference Indexes A reference index is an internal structure that the system creates whenever a referential integrity constraint is defined between tables using a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraint on the parent table in the relationship and a REFERENCES constraint on a foreign key in the child table.The index row contains a count of the number of references in the child, or foreign key, table to the PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraint in the parent table. Apart from capacity planning issues, reference indexes have no user visibility. References for Teradata http://www. teradata. com/products-and-services/database/ http://teradata. uark. edu/research/wang/indexes. html http://www. teradata. com/products-and-services/database/teradata-13/ http://www. odbms. org/download/illuminate%20Comparison. pdf